INFLUENCE OF CATASTROPHES ON RESOURCE INVENTORIES AND MANAGEMENT
H. Gyde Lund
USDA Forest Service FIERR
P.O. Box 96090
Washington, DC 20090-6090
ABSTRACT: By definition, catastrophes involving natural resources are
unavoidable. There are, however, actions one can take to reduce the impact
and to shorten the time span for recovery. Knowing when, where and what type
of catastrophes are likely to occur helps one to be prepared. Having a
continuous inventory program will assist in the assessment of the impacts.
There are other activities that nations can undertake to strengthen their
inventory and monitoring capabilities. Suggestions include maintaining an
archive of remote sensing coverage, developing and maintaining a permanent
plot network, keeping aware of advanced technologies such as airborne
videography, global positioning systems, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Picture yourself coming home from work. You find your house completely
destroyed - this may be due to fire, flood, war, earthquake, volcanic
eruption, or any other catastrophic occurrence. You are grateful that your
family and loved ones are safe. Now you have to go about rebuilding your
house. What information do you need to get the resource situation back to
normal? Had you prior warning that a catastrophe was going to occur, what
would you have done to safeguard your possessions? What would you have done
to insure you could rapidly recover from your loss? Now, switch from thinking
about your personal situation to one of a country and its natural resources.
The safeguarding of human populations and personal property is primary to
everyone. What, however, can one do to minimize the impact on natural
resources and to recover rapidly afterward?
The initial planning for this meeting goes back to 1980 with the eruption
of Mt. St. Helens. Within a week or so after the blast, we were getting
estimates of how much area was deforested and what it would take for recovery.
We, in the U.S.D.A. Forest Service, were fortunate. We had a good inventory
of the devastated area prior to the eruption, a permanent inventory crew,
access to aerial reconnaissance and satellite imagery, and the people to use
these tools.
I was impressed with the way that the U.S.D.A. Forest Service quickly
estimated the damage and created a rehabilitation plan. All countries face
some disaster or catastrophe at some point in time. I felt that if we could
have a conference on how others dealt with the inventory of resources
following a catastrophic event, it would help those who will face this
prospect. Well, it is now 1993. It took nearly 12 years to find a host for
this conference and for the organizers to put together a successful meeting.
This conference looks at some procedures that others have used. From their
experiences, we may be able to develop some general recommendations that could
apply to most any situation. Hopefully, from the proceedings of this meeting,
resource managers will have some guidance on how to deal successfully with
catastrophic events.
DEFINITIONS
Before we go further, we need to define some terms:
Cataclysm - sudden and violent upheavals associated with extreme
geophysical events such as earthquakes and volcanoes.
Calamity - carries overtones of the great grief and sense of loss
accompanying such events.
Catastrophe - a sudden and widespread calamitous event causing great
damage or hardship. They have rapid onset, short-duration,
and are localized. Usually catastrophe implies such large-scale damage
that is either impossible or very long term from which to recover.
Disaster - any occurrence causing widespread distress, usually with the
loss of human life and irreparable damage to social systems or
property. The onset is slow, complex and effects are generally widespread.
For this paper, catastrophes differ from disasters. Catastrophes usually
come suddenly and often unexpectedly. They may include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods and avalanches, fires, and chemical and nuclear accidents.
Disasters, on the other hand, build up gradually. They include such events as
droughts, global climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, acid
deposition, plagues of disease or insects, civil strife, and starvation.
Both disasters and catastrophes may be caused by forces of nature or human
and cultural events.
Catastrophes and disasters impact human life, private and public property
and natural resources. When a catastrophe occurs, our first concern is the
effect on human lives (deaths and injuries, health conditions, food and
shelter). Our second concern is the impact of the event on resources (natural
and human-made). The third concern is restoring conditions to the way the
situation was before the event or for making the conditions better. This
paper and others in this meeting focus on the inventory and management of
natural resources. Most disaster assistance programs focus on immediately
relieving human suffering. Little priority is given to restoring natural
resources and agricultural lands to the way they were before the calamity
occurred. An unstable resource base following a catastrophic event can foster
continued civilian unrest as was the case of the downfall of the government of
Somalia following long periods of drought and famine. While human relief was
provided, very little efforts were made to stabilize the resource base.
STATISTICS
Knowing what catastrophic events are likely to occur, where, and how they
will affect the natural resources, can help us better prepare ourselves for
the calamity. Table 1 lists some average annual numbers of catastrophes and
loss of life as recorded for the period 1947-1967. Our means of observation
and communication have increased significantly since that reporting period so
we may assume that these statistics are on the conservative side.
Table 1. Average annual number of catastrophes and loss of life by event
worldwide (source: Cornell 1976).
Agent Number Loss of life
----- ------ ------------
Floods, tidal waves 10.7 8,818
Typhoons, hurricanes, cyclones 7.4 5,099
Earthquakes 4.3 2,805
Tornados, sand and dust storms 3.4 171
Gales, thunderstorms, rainstorms, snowstorms 2.1 1,278
Heat/cold waves, fog, frost 1.7 581
Volcanic eruptions 0.7 361
Landslides/avalanches 1.1 328
---- ------
Totals 31.4 19,441
Note that for Table 1, there are other "volcanic" activities that do not
result in eruptions, but can be considered catastrophes. In August 1985, for
example, lethal gases were released from a volcanic lake in Cameroon,
asphyxiating some 1,500 villagers and untold numbers of livestock and wildlife
(Fisher et al. 1986).
Table 2 lists the number of disasters worldwide for the period 1982-1991
(OFDA 1992a).
Table 2. All disasters by type for fiscal years 1982-1991.
Type Number
---- ------
Cyclone, hurricane 182
Drought, food shortage 109
Earthquake, tsunami 120
Fire 85
Flood 320
Heat and cold waves 17
Infestations 50
Landslide, avalanche 49
Storm 91
Volcano 29
----
Total 1052
Table 3 shows the amount of damage to private and public property incurred
by catastrophic agents adjusted to 1992 prices.
Table 3. Property damage resulting from selected natural hazards in the
United States, annual basis (adopted from Cornell 1976).
Property damage
Agent (millions of 1992 $)
----- --------------------
Floods, tidal waves 1,712
Typhoons, hurricanes, cyclones 1,714
Earthquakes 392
Tornados, sand and dust storms 688
Gales, thunderstorms, rainstorms, snowstorms 1,025
Heat/cold waves, fog, frost 300
------
Total 5,831
While not reflected in Tables 1 and 3, drought currently ranks as the
world's foremost natural disaster in terms of numbers of people affected. In
the 1980's, nearly 30 million people were affected annually. People working
on marginal lands contribute to the detriment of those lands and to their own
future (Fisher et al. 1986). Flooding is the fastest growing natural hazard.
The number of people affected tripled from 1960 (5.2 victims annually) to 15.4
in 1970's (Fisher et al. 1986).
Note that the data given in Table 3 do not include information on forest
fires or insect and disease epidemics. Nor does it include estimates on loss
of natural resources. Both fire and insect infestations can be calamities.
In 1958, for example, a locusts plague in Ethiopia devoured some 167,000 tons
of grain - enough to feed one million people for a year (Fisher et al. 1986).
To minimize damage and loss, we need to be better able to predict or
prevent catastrophic events before they happen and to hasten recovery after
they occur. Having a continuous natural resource inventory program and a
network of permanent plots is recommended for any country - but especially
those that tend to be hit with catastrophic events. Having a good resource
inventory can provide the base against which the impact of the disaster can be
assessed and upon which a recovery plan can be developed.
CHRONOLOGY OF DISASTERS
Though many catastrophes and disasters are unavoidable, they do not have to
be unexpected and people do not have to be unprepared. Cornell (1976)
discusses the chronology, natural history or evolution of disasters and
catastrophes. The steps include the periods of early warning, threat, impact,
inventory, rescue, remedy and recovery. We can use these steps to outline
some activities we can undertake to inventory and manage our natural
resources.
1) THE PERIOD OF WARNING is when conditions leading to the danger are first
noted. 2) THE THREAT occurs when most people notice an impending catastrophe.
Forecasting of catastrophic events can and does help save lives and man-made
objects. Table 4 lists number of disaster impacts by continent for the year
1975. Again, these numbers may reflect our ability to observe and report such
disasters then, rather than the numbers that actually occurred. Such
statistics help us predict where disasters are likely to occur.
Table 4. Average number of disasters by region (source: Cornell 1976).
Region Number of disaster impacts
------ --------------------------
North America 210
Central America and Caribbean 49
South America 45
Africa 17
Europe (excluding former USSR) 85
Asia (excluding former USSR) 297
Australasia 13
----
Totals 716
Statistics for 1982-1991 (OFDA 1992a) show Africa having the greatest
number of disasters (45%), followed by Asia (20%), South America (10%),
Central America (8%), the Pacific region (5%), Europe (5%), the Caribbean (4%)
and the Near East (3%). Note that these statistics do not include the United
States or Canada.
As you will note from the above, the most severely affected areas are
often the poorest. Natural disasters weaken what could be already poor
communication and infrastructures and could lead to political consequences
(Fisher et al. 1986). It is in everyone's interest to not only save lives and
property, but to minimize natural resources losses. The stabilization of the
natural resource base following a catastrophic event will help get the
populace back on their feet and lessen opportunities for future strife.
Personal observation, remote sensing, geological and meteorological
monitoring systems can provide early warnings of impending dangers. Weather
satellites help keep an eye on building storms and hurricanes. Climate
information and vegetation index information from AVHRR satellites can help us
determine fuel condition and make predictions of fire behavior. Seismographs
can help us predict and pinpoint earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and
nuclear blasts. With early warning, government organizations and relief
organizations can be waiting with response systems in place and supplies
ready. Some international groups providing early warning and disaster
assistance include the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS), World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Forecasting of when, where, and how catastrophic events will occur will
improve over time.
Since catastrophes, by definition, are sudden and widespread, planning for
such events is difficult. There are, however, some actions one can take to be
in a better position to conduct damage assessments and to mitigate losses. By
knowing when and where a catastrophic event may occur, one can reduce damage
to human lives and private and public property. Populations can be evacuated
and homes and stores boarded up. Protection of natural resources such as
forests is more difficult. The impact of the hazard may be adjusted by
(Cornell 1976):
a) Modifying the hazard itself, such as cloud-seeding in times of
drought or triggering avalanches or creating upstream control of rivers
through reservoirs and improved ground cover.
b) Reducing the vulnerability to natural events, by setting up warning
systems, constructing flood control dams and dikes, hurricane prediction,
monitoring volcanoes and seismic activity, constructing earthquake
resistant houses or limiting land use in high risk zones.
c) Distributing the losses of disaster events, either through insurance
plans or relief and reconstruction aid.
If natural resources are in an area where a catastrophe or disaster has
occurred in the past, one may expect a similar occurrence to happen in the
future. Therefore, knowing the history of an area can help to define the
risks involved in natural resource management of that area. If your resources
are in "accident prone" areas, keep a current inventory and maintain a
continuous monitoring. Have a contingency plan on how to respond when the
calamity occurs.
The best defense against catastrophes is a good offense. Be prepared! If
you have natural resources in an area where a catastrophe or disaster is
likely to occur, then you should have a plan on how to protect, salvage, and
rehabilitate the area. Having a good base inventory consisting of permanent
plots and maps of the resources will aid in the recovery period. Similarly,
having back-ups of inventory data stored in locations beyond the probable area
of catastrophic impact will help safeguard the resource information.
We can take some steps to mitigate losses due to the more frequently
occurring events such as fire, insect and disease attacks. We can build fire
breaks, assemble fire caches, reduce fuel loads in areas of high fire risk.
By frequent monitoring, we can attack insect populations while the numbers are
still small. Similarly, we can remove diseased trees or the sources of the
pathogen before epidemics occur. If one knew for certain that a given area
would be obliterated by a catastrophic event, one could conceivably harvest
all the timber in the area. However, one runs the risk of the catastrophe not
occurring or a situation in which the "cure" is worse than the illness.
3) THE IMPACT - when disaster actually strikes. When a catastrophe occurs,
the foremost priority is human life followed by private and public property.
Natural resources are usually at the low end of the scale - except when the
disaster can be labelled an environmental disaster such as the Exxon oil spill
of 1988.
Not all calamities have major impacts on the forest resource. Forest-
related catastrophes usually result in the removing or downing of larger
number of trees or weakening stands making them more susceptible to fire and
disease and insect infestations. Not being able to determine impacts affects
organization and policy locally, nationally, and globally. Not being able to
respond rapidly with salvage and reforestation activities may mean wasted
material, economic loss, and environmental degradation.
Table 5 lists some catastrophic events and their potential impact on forest
resources according to my very limited observations. The table also shows
those catastrophic events where the losses to the forest resource can be
mitigated with planning, education, and prevention activities. Those losses
caused by "natural" events may be acceptable to some environmentalists, but
those losses that are due to human carelessness are acceptable by none.
In the past decade or so, the United States has been hit by earthquakes,
tornadoes, floods, oil spills, major volcanic eruption, at least two
hurricanes, a major fire in Yellowstone in addition to the "normal" forest
fires and insect and disease epidemics.
Mt. St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. The blast removed three billion
cubic meters of new magmatic material of the old upper and northern parts of
the mountain including 129 million cubic meters of glacial snow and ice.
Eruption caused pyroclastic flows, mudflows and flooding (Foxworthy and Hill
1982). A total of 57 people were killed. Losses to timber and agriculture
were estimated to be between $40-100 million. National Forest System and
Forest Inventory and Analysis estimates made at the time indicated a total of
60,000 ha of forest land denuded or heavily damaged (25,000 National Forest
lands, 6,000 state, 29,000 private). Some private land had already been
logged. Total timber mortality was estimated at 38.4 million cubic meters.
Much of that was salvaged. These estimates were made shortly after the
eruption (Oswald 1993).
Based upon USDA Forest Service Inventory and Analysis photo interpretation
estimates, 0.64 million ha experienced crown fire in the Yellowstone fires of
1988. An estimate of timber volume lost or damaged approaches 28.3 million
cubic meters (Van Hooser et al. 1990).
Hurricane Hugo hit the Southeastern part of the United States in 1989. A
total of 1.82 million ha in South Carolina were damaged to some extent by
Hurricane Hugo. Twenty-nine percent of the residual softwood and six percent
of the hardwood inventory in South Carolina was damaged. The total volume in
dead timber not salvaged was 17.9 million cubic meters for softwoods and 7.6
million cubic meters for hardwoods. Some 10.6 million cubic meters of
softwood inventory was salvaged compared to 1.4 million cubic meters for
hardwoods (Thompson 1993).
Hurricane Andrew is considered the worst catastrophic event to occur in the
United States. The hurricane swept westward across the southern part of
Florida and then headed northwest and hit part of Louisiana. The hurricane
caused an estimated $20 billion damage in Florida and took at least 38 lives.
Most loss of forest resources occurred in Louisiana. Kelly (1993) estimates
nearly 0.45 million ha of forest land were affected. Damage to baldcypress
and hardwoods amounted to nearly 10.7 million cubic meters. Nearly 139,000
lives were lost in a recent hurricane in Bangladesh (OFDA 1992a).
Table 5. Impacts of various catastrophic/disaster events on forest resources.
Event Impact on forest Preventable/
----- resources controllable
---------------- ------------
Natural
Drought/heat Generally minor - may Partially
contribute to deforestation
in arid zones
...........................
Snow/frost Minor No
...........................
Earthquakes Minor No
...........................
Volcanic eruptions Possibly major if long time No
between eruptions
...........................
Wind/hurricanes/tornados May be extensive No
...........................
Avalanches Minor - tends to be No
recurring
...........................
Natural/Human Induced
Floods Minor Partially
...........................
Forest fires Major if fuel builds up Yes
...........................
Insect and disease Could be major, but usually Yes
have early warning
...........................
Human Induced
Oil spills Very minor - but could have Yes
effect on mangrove forests
and anadromous fish
...........................
War Major Yes
...........................
Nuclear/chemical accident Minor to major depending Yes
on winds
...........................
Acid deposition Probably major Yes
...........................
Global climate change Probably major Yes
Table 6 summarizes some impacts to forest resources of recent catastrophes
and disasters in the United States. We were able to rapidly assess the impact
of these various calamities because the U.S. Forest Service has a continuous
forest inventory program, permanent inventory crews, and access to a variety
of technologies.
Table 6. Recent major catastrophes and disasters in the United States
impacting timber resources (source USDA Forest Service 1993).
Event Year Forested area affected Mortality (million
----- ---- (millions of ha) cubic meters)
---------------------- ------------------
Mt. St. Helens 1980 0.06 38.4
Hurricane Hugo 1989 1.82 36.8
Hurricane Andrew 1992 0.45 10.7
Yellowstone fires 1988 0.64 28.3
Forest/range fires 1990 2.23 not given
Insect and disease 1992 4.16 76.4
With respect to natural resource inventory and management implications,
there is little that one can do during the actual event except to continue to
make plans for damage assessment (inventory) and recovery. Most areas,
especially "developing countries" will have an already poor situation made
worse. Communications may be nonexistent and access to "high" technology that
could be useful for assessments nearly impossible to come by.
4) THE INVENTORY - when the victims comprehend what has happened.
Community economic and social infrastructure may be destroyed so survival and
recovery may be jeopardized. With respect to natural resource inventory and
management implications, the first priority is to open lines of communication
and transportation to start rescue operations, assess the extent of damage and
to start cleanup and rehabilitation. Aerial observation and airborne
videography can help to determine how much work is needed to open roads,
trails, etc.
Through damage assessment, we take stock of what actually happened and the
size of the loss. In relation to forestry, catastrophes can affect:
a) Amount and extent of forest (vegetation) cover.
b) Composition of flora and fauna.
c) Access to previously available flora and fauna (political).
Resource inventories consisting of mapping and sampling are needed to
provide data on concerns. The use of satellite imagery, such as that from
Landsat TM, SPOT, or AVHRR, is one of the quickest ways to survey large areas.
Some newer satellites carry radar imaging systems useful for penetrating areas
covered by clouds or smoke. For smaller areas, airborne videography may be a
very useful tool. The use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) can help
relocate plots for damage assessment, recovery activities, and monitoring.
Hand-held lasers can be used to measure distances to objects where access is
difficult.
5) THE RESCUE - when all efforts are turned to the immediate help of
survivors. 6) THE REMEDY - when deliberate and formal actions are taken
towards relief. For natural resources, our attention is focused on opening
roads and trails and salvaging that which can be used. Based upon the
inventory or assessment, detailed plans are drawn up for salvaging that which
can be saved, removing that which cannot be saved, and rehabilitation of the
land and water resources.
7) THE RECOVERY - the extended period when the community and individual
members re-establish the old order or create a new one. With respect to
natural resources inventory and management implications, this is where the
plan for salvage and rehabilitation is put into operation. We follow-up with
monitoring to see if we are actually accomplishing the goals of the plan.
Post-disaster evaluations can uncover options to help avoid or mitigate future
recurrences. Again, remote sensing and sampling can help us carry out this
task.
"BENEFITS" OF CALAMITIES
Catastrophes and disasters tend to draw people and organizations together.
By taking advantage of focused assistance, some of the shortcomings that
"developing" countries face (lack of technology, infrastructure,
communication, etc.) may be overcome.
SUDAN CASE STUDY - In the mid-1990's the sub-sahara region of Africa was
hit with an extreme drought. Food supplies were in short supply and civil
unrest prevailed in the region. The use of woody vegetation fuel, fodder, and
building material hastened desertification in Sudan. Drawn together to avoid
further disasters, the Government of Sudan and the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) initiated the Sudan Reforestation and Anti-
desertification (SRAAD) project in 1989. The objective of SRAAD was to
determine the extent, condition and demand for woody vegetation in the central
part of the country. The proposed three-year project was cut to a four-month
demonstration/technology transfer effort because of a coup in Sudan. USAID
called in specialists from Winrock International, the U.S. Geological Survey
and the USDA Forest Service to assist with the project. Working together,
Sudan foresters and surveyors worked with counterparts from the U.S. and
developed techniques to map and survey the vegetation using global positioning
systems, Landsat TM, field samples, and socio-economic surveys. In spite of
the severe hardships facing Sudan at the time, the project was a complete
success (Lund et al. 1991). The technology was transferred and the
demonstration project completed on time.
The drought created a disaster and the disaster created a new and very
sound resource mapping and inventory program for Sudan. Faced with common
problems, several Sudan government agencies joined together to combat the
calamities including the Forest National Corporation, the Sudan Survey
Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture. Happily, the work still
continues today (Obeid and Hassan 1992) even though, for political reasons,
the U.S. and other donors have had to cut off financial support.
HOW TO AVOID CATASTROPHIC INVENTORIES OF CATASTROPHIC EVENTS
We must go beyond the step of providing assistance after the disaster
occurs and provide assistance that will help mitigate the impact of the
disaster before it begins and shorten the time span towards recovery (Fisher
et al. 1986). In order to lessen the impact of catastrophic events, we must
be prepared -- have a good inventory base and infrastructure.
In the future, we will be better prepared to mitigate the loss of lives and
property and to prepare for emergency relief, damage assessment, and
restoration. In the mean time, there are some activities that we can do to
prepare ourselves better.
1) Remember resource inventory and management programs may actually be
strengthened because of catastrophe.
2) Know where to go to get help. In 1976 there were at least 1000
research and warning centers in 80 different countries and more than 150
separate groups in the U.S. alone. Most government agencies (city, county,
state and federal) have some type of disaster relief or assistance programs.
Some U.S. private organizations include Adventist Development and Relief
Agency, Red Cross, Cooperation for American Relief Everywhere, Christian
Children's Fund, Catholic Relief Services, Church World Service, Food for the
Hungry International, Helen Keller International, International Rescue
Committee, Lutheran World Relief, Medical Assistance Programs, Mercy Corps
International, Save the Children Federation, World Vision Relief and
Development, and Young Men's Christian Association. Other U.S. organizations
include Agency for International Development, Centers for Disease Control,
Disaster Assistance Response Team, Department of Defense, Food for Peace
Office, Famine Early Warning System, Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance, Bureau of Refugee Programs, USDA Forest Service Disaster
Assistance Program, and U.S. Geological Survey.
International organizations include Catholic Agencies for Overseas
Development, European Community, International Committee of the Red Cross,
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, International
Organization for Migration, Lutheran World Federation, Medecine Sans
Frontieres, Pan American Health Organization, United Nations (UN) Development
Program, UN Food and Agricultural Organization, UN Offices of the Disaster
Relief Coordinator, UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UN Children's Fund,
World Council of Churches, World Food Program, and World Health Organization
(OFDA 1992b).
3) Maintain historical files to have the "before" data.
a) Have a good and up-to-date inventory/monitoring program, database,
and spatial information. Know what you have and where the resources
are located so if changes come about you will be able to determine
impact, salvage, and recovery.
b) Keep back-up copies of the databases in separate locations.
c) Record coordinates of all field plots, whether permanent or
temporary, along with the plot information and the date when the data
were collected. From this information, one can create a "before"
picture if necessary.
d) In all likelihood, there will be some type of coverage available of
disaster areas from satellites. Periodically archive satellite imagery
of your area. Then when catastrophe occurs you can go back and analyze
impact since last coverage. NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey are in
the process of obtaining wall-to-wall coverage of Landsat MSS data for
1970, 1980, and 1990 of North America and parts of the tropics. Such
information will be useful for assessing extent of major catastrophic
events.
4) Be prepared to collect new data. Rehabilitation groups must have new
data. Funds and personnel are often made available for damage assessment and
inventories. Similarly funds are often made available for clean-up and
reforestation. Seize opportunities of media attention and work (available
camera coverage, interviews, etc.) to publicize and help your present and
future work.
a) Have an active or continuous forest inventory program. That way,
you will have the expertise and equipment on hand should a catastrophe
occur.
b) Keep abreast of new technologies and opportunities. Know the
capabilities of various means of remote sensing, what imagery is
available and where to get it. Set up base stations for global
positioning systems (gps). Then, when disaster occurs, one can
relocate property lines, inventory plots, etc. using differential gps.
Lasers can help survey distances where travel or access may be
difficult.
After a catastrophe occurs, check with the local press for availability
of satellite, video, or still camera photography (Hough 1992). Such
imagery may be helpful for analyzing impacts on natural resources.
Airborne videography can be used to collect information where access is
limited or quick information is needed.
When in the field, consider the use of hand-held transceivers to send
and receive information from the control office. Such technology has
been used for tracking locust infestations where quick response is
needed (Voss 1993). Climatic and vegetation conditions, detected by
satellite, pinpoint potential locations where locusts may emerge. This
information is transmitted to field crews via satellite and transceivers
to check the locations to see, if in fact, locusts are found there. If
found to be true, the field crews transmit the emergence information
back to the home base and in theory, spray planes are dispatched.
Operations which would normally take months between forecast and
dispatching of control crews can be done in a matter of hours or days.
5) If a disaster occurs, it may be necessary to share research information
with others to model rehabilitation opportunities. To share and use data with
or from others, use national or international standards when collecting data.
The International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) is
developing a set of international guides for forest monitoring (Lund 1993).
By following such standards, there are more opportunities to use information
from others to help with modeling and monitoring recovery efforts.
6) Catastrophes seldom affect a single group or organization. As pointed
out above, misfortunes bring people and groups together working towards a
common good. Seek opportunities to form partnerships with others. Fostering
alliances during the recovery period and maintaining them into the future can
only improve the effectiveness of natural resource management. Use the
success of the rehabilitation work to maintain inventory programs and
partnerships afterward.
In the past few minutes we have examined the range of catastrophes and
disasters that can affect the availability and management of natural
resources. Some areas are more susceptible to catastrophes and disasters than
others. By knowing what kinds of disasters are likely to take place in a
given area, we are better able to deal with the event when it occurs. Having
a current inventory with permanent sample locations can help assess impacts of
calamities and having a contingency plan on hand can hasten the recovery. We
looked at the history of catastrophies from a natural resource perspective.
Finally we have outlined some steps people can take to be better able to
assess the resource situation and develop rehabilitation plans. By following
these steps and the examples given later in this conference we should be in a
better position to respond to catastrophic occurrences. The tools and
processes are here - it is up to us to use them.
LITERATURE CITED
Cornell, James. 1976. The great international disaster book. New York, NY:
Charles Scribner's Sons. 382 p.
Fisher, Ron et al. contrib. eds. 1986. Nature on the rampage: our violent
Earth. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. 199 p.
Foxworthy, Bruce L. and Mary Hill. 1982. Volcanic eruptions of 1980 at
Mount St. Helens - the first 100 days. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 1249. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. 125 p.
Hough, Harold. 1992. Reporters in the sky. Earth Observation Magazine
1(6):40-41,43-44.
Kelly, John. 1993. Personal correspondence.
Lund, H. Gyde, Tony Jasumback, Ray Allison, and Alan Falconer. 1991.
Taking back the desert. GPS World 2(6):24-31.
Lund, H. Gyde. 1992. How to watch the forests -- IUFRO guides for world
forest monitoring. SELPER 8(2):40-44.
Melson, William and Sidney Horenstein, consultants. 1984. Volcano. Planet
Earth Series, Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Series. 176 p.
Obeid, Sayed Mohamed Hanafi and Azim Einiweri Hassan. 1992. First interim
report. Republic of the Sudan, Forest National Corporation, Sudan Resource
Assessment and Development, Khartoum, Sudan. 36 p.
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